Американские индейцы

Американские индейцы

INTRODUCTION

Traditionally, the very beginning of the United States’ history is

considered from the time of European exploration and settlement, starting

in the 16th century, to the present. But people had been living in America

for over 30,000 years before the first European colonists arrived.

When Columbus landed on the island of San Salvador in 1492 he was

welcomed by a brown-skinned people whose physical appearance confirmed him

in his opinion that he had at last reached India, and whom, therefore, he

called Indios, Indians, a name which, however mistaken in its first

application continued to hold its own, and has long since won general

acceptance, except in strictly scientific writing, where the more exact

term American is commonly used. As exploration was extended north and south

it was found that the same race was spread over the whole continent, from

the Arctic shores to Cape Horn, everywhere alike in the main physical

characteristics, with the exception of the Eskimo in the extreme North

(whose features suggest the Mongolian).

GENERAL BACKGROUND

Origin and Antiquity

Various origins have been assigned to the Indian race. The more or

less beleivable explanation is following. At the height of the Ice Age,

between 34,000 and 30,000 B.C., much of the world's water was contained in

vast continental ice sheets. As a result, the Bering Sea was hundreds of

meters below its current level, and a land bridge, known as Beringia,

emerged between Asia and North America. At its peak, Beringia is thought to

have been some 1,500 kilometers wide. A moist and treeless tundra, it was

covered with grasses and plant life, attracting the large animals that

early humans hunted for their survival. The first people to reach North

America almost certainly did so without knowing they had crossed into a new

continent. They would have been following game, as their ancestors had for

thousands of years, along the Siberian coast and then across the land

bridge.

Race Type

The most marked physical characteristics of the Indian race type are

brown skin, dark brown eyes, prominent cheek bones, straight black hair,

and scantiness of beard. The color is not red, as is popularly supposed,

but varies from very light in some tribes, as the Cheyenne, to almost black

in others, as the Caddo and Tarimari. In a few tribes, as the Flatheads,

the skin has a distinct yellowish cast. The hair is brown in childhood, but

always black in the adult until it turns grey with age. Baldness is almost

unknown. The eye is not held so open as in the Caucasian and seems better

adapted to distance than to close work. The nose is usually straight and

well shaped, and in some tribes strongly aquiline. Their hands and feet are

comparatively small. Height and weight vary as among Europeans, the Pueblos

averaging but little more than five feet, while the Cheyenne and Arapaho

are exceptionally tall, and the Tehuelche of Patagonia almost massive in

build. As a rule, the desert Indians, as the Apache, are spare and muscular

in build, while those of the timbered regions are heavier, although not

proportionately stronger. The beard is always scanty, but increases with

the admixture of white blood. The mistaken idea that the Indian has

naturally no beard is due to the fact that in most tribes it is plucked out

as fast as it grows, the eyebrows being treated in the same way. There is

no tribe of "white Indians", but albinos with blond skin, weak pink eyes

and almost white hair are occasionally found, especially among the Pueblos.

Major Cultural Areas

From prehistoric times until recent historic times there were roughly

six major cultural areas, excluding that of the Arctic (see Eskimo), i.e.,

Northwest Coast, Plains, Plateau, Eastern Woodlands, Northern, and

Southwest.

The Northwest Coast Area

The Northwest Coast area extended along the Pacific coast from South

Alaska to North California. The main language families in this area were

the Nadene in the north and the Wakashan (a subdivision of the Algonquian-

Wakashan linguistic stock) and the Tsimshian (a subdivision of the Penutian

linguistic stock) in the central area. Typical tribes were the Kwakiutl,

the Haida, the Tsimshian, and the Nootka. Thickly wooded, with a temperate

climate and heavy rainfall, the area had long supported a large Native

American population. Salmon was the staple food, supplemented by sea

mammals (seals and sea lions) and land mammals (deer, elk, and bears) as

well as berries and other wild fruit. The Native Americans of this area

used wood to build their houses and had cedar-planked canoes and carved

dugouts. In their permanent winter villages some of the groups had totem

poles, which were elaborately carved and covered with symbolic animal

decoration. Their art work, for which they are famed, also included the

making of ceremonial items, such as rattles and masks; weaving; and

basketry. They had a highly stratified society with chiefs, nobles,

commoners, and slaves. Public display and disposal of wealth were basic

features of the society. They had woven robes, furs, and basket hats as

well as wooden armor and helmets for battle. This distinctive culture,

which included cannibalistic rituals, was not greatly affected by European

influences until after the late 18th cent., when the white fur traders and

hunters came to the area.

TRIBES: Abenaki, Algonkin, Beothuk, Delaware, Erie, Fox, Huron,

Illinois, Iroquois, Kickapoo, Mahican, Mascouten, Massachuset,

Mattabesic, Menominee, Metoac, Miami, Micmac, Mohegan, Montagnais,

Narragansett, Nauset, Neutrals, Niantic, Nipissing, Nipmuc, Ojibwe,

Ottawa, Pennacook, Pequot, Pocumtuck, Potawatomi, Sauk, Shawnee,

Susquehannock, Tionontati, Wampanoag, Wappinger, Wenro, Winnebago.

The Plains Area

The Plains area extended from just North of the Canadian border, South

to Texas and included the grasslands area between the Mississippi River and

the foothills of the Rocky Mts. The main language families in this area

were the Algonquian-Wakashan, the Aztec-Tanoan, and the Hokan-Siouan. In

pre-Columbian times there were two distinct types of Native Americans

there: sedentary and nomadic. The sedentary tribes, who had migrated from

neighbor ing regions and had initally settled along the great river

valleys, were farmers and lived in permanent villages of dome-shaped earth

lodges surrounded by earthen walls. They raised corn, squash, and beans.

The foot nomads, on the other hand, moved about with their goods on dog-

drawn travois and eked out a precarious existence by hunting the vast herds

of buffalo (bison) - usually by driving them into enclosures or rounding

them up by setting grass fires. They supplemented their diet by exchanging

meat and hides for the corn of the agricultural Native Americans.

The horse, first introduced by the Spanish of the Southwest, appeared

in the Plains about the beginning of the 18th cent. and revolutionized the

life of the Plains Indians. Many Native Americans left their villages and

joined the nomads. Mounted and armed with bow and arrow, they ranged the

grasslands hunting buffalo. The other Native Americans remained farmers

(e.g., the Arikara, the Hidatsa, and the Mandan). Native Americans from

surrounding areas came into the Plains (e.g., the Sioux from the Great

Lakes, the Comanche and the Kiowa from the west and northwest, and the

Navajo and the Apache from the southwest). A universal sign language

developed among the perpetually wandering and often warring Native

Americans. Living on horseback and in the portable tepee, they preserved

food by pounding and drying lean meat and made their clothes from buffalo

hides and deerskins. The system of coup was a characteristic feature of

their society. Other features were rites of fasting in quest of a vision,

warrior clans, bead and feather art work, and decorated hides. These Plains

Indians were among the last to engage in a serious struggle with the white

settlers in the United States.

TRIBES: Arapaho, Arikara, Assiniboine, Bidai, Blackfoot, Caddo,

Cheyenne, Comanche, Cree, Crow, Dakota (Sioux), Gros Ventre, Hidatsa,

Iowa, Kansa, Kiowa, Kiowa-Apache, Kitsai, Lakota (Sioux), Mandan,

Metis, Missouri, Nakota (Sioux), Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca,

Sarsi, Sutai, Tonkawa, Wichita.

The Plateau Area

The Plateau area extended from above the Canadian border through the

plateau and mountain area of the Rocky Mts. to the Southwest and included

much of California. Typical tribes were the Spokan, the Paiute, the Nez

Perce, and the Shoshone. This was an area of great linguistic diversity.

Because of the inhospitable environment the cultural development was

generally low. The Native Americans in the Central Valley of California and

on the California coast, notably the Pomo, were sedentary peoples who

gathered edible plants, roots, and fruit and also hunted small game. Their

acorn bread, made by pounding acorns into meal and then leaching it with

hot water, was distinctive, and they cooked in baskets filled with water

and heated by hot stones. Living in brush shelters or more substantial lean-

tos, they had partly buried earth lodges for ceremonies and ritual sweat

baths. Basketry, coiled and twined, was highly developed. To the north,

between the Cascade Range and the Rocky Mts., the social, political, and

religious systems were simple, and art was nonexistent. The Native

Americans there underwent (since 1730) a great cultural change when they

obtained from the Plains Indians the horse, the tepee, a form of the sun

dance, and deerskin clothes. They continued, however, to fish for salmon

with nets and spears and to gather camas bulbs. They also gathered ants and

other insects and hunted small game and, in later times, buffalo. Their

permanent winter villages on waterways had semisubterranean lodges with

conical roofs; a few Native Americans lived in bark-covered long houses.

TRIBES: Carrier, Cayuse, Coeur D'Alene, Colville, Dock-Spus,

Eneeshur, Flathead, Kalispel, Kawachkin, Kittitas, Klamath, Klickitat,

Kosith, Kutenai, Lakes, Lillooet, Methow, Modac, Nez Perce, Okanogan,

Palouse, Sanpoil, Shushwap, Sinkiuse, Spokane, Tenino, Thompson,

Tyigh, Umatilla, Wallawalla, Wasco, Wauyukma, Wenatchee, Wishram,

Wyampum, Yakima. Californian: Achomawi, Atsugewi, Cahuilla, Chimariko,

Chumash, Costanoan, Esselen, Hupa, Karuk, Kawaiisu, Maidu, Mission

Indians, Miwok, Mono, Patwin, Pomo, Serrano, Shasta, Tolowa,

Tubatulabal, Wailaki, Wintu, Wiyot, Yaha, Yokuts, Yuki, Yuman

(California).

The Eastern Woodlands Area

The Eastern Woodlands area covered the eastern part of the United

States, roughly from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, and

included the Great Lakes. The Natchez, the Choctaw, the Cherokee, and the

Creek were typical inhabitants. The northeastern part of this area extended

from Canada to Kentucky and Virginia. The people of the area (speaking

languages of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock) were largely deer hunters and

farmers; the women tended small plots of corn, squash, and beans. The

birchbark canoe gained wide usage in this area. The general pattern of

existence of these Algonquian peoples and their neighbors, who spoke

languages belonging to the Iroquoian branch of the Hokan-Siouan stock

(enemies who had probably invaded from the south), was quite complex. Their

diet of deer meat was supplemented by other game (e.g., bear), fish (caught

with hook, spear, and net), and shellfish. Cooking was done in vessels of

wood and bark or simple black pottery. The dome-shaped wigwam and the

longhouse of the Iroquois characterized their housing. The deerskin

clothing, the painting of the face and (in the case of the men) body, and

the scalp lock of the men (left when hair was shaved on both sides of the

head), were typical. The myths of Manitou (often called Manibozho or

Manabaus), the hero who remade the world from mud after a deluge, are also

widely known.

The region from the Ohio River South to the Gulf of Mexico, with its

forests and fertile soil, was the heart of the southeastern part of the

Eastern Woodlands cultural area. There before c.500 the inhabitants were

seminomads who hunted, fished, and gathered roots and seeds. Between 500

and 900 they adopted agriculture, tobacco smoking, pottery making, and

burial mounds. By c.1300 the agricultural economy was well established, and

artifacts found in the mounds show that trade was widespread. Long before

the Europeans arrived, the peoples of the Natchez and Muskogean branches of

the Hokan-Siouan linguistic family were farmers who used hoes with stone,

bone, or shell blades. They hunted with bow and arrow and blowgun, caught

fish by poisoning streams, and gathered berries, fruit, and shellfish. They

had excellent pottery, sometimes decorated with abstract figures of animals

or humans. Since warfare was frequent and intense, the villages were

enclosed by wooden palisades reinforced with earth. Some of the large

villages, usually ceremonial centers, dominated the smaller settlements of

the surrounding countryside. There were temples for sun worship; rites were

elaborate and featured an altar with perpetual fire, extinguished and

rekindled each year in a “new fire” ceremony. The society was commonly

divided into classes, with a chief, his children, nobles, and commoners

making up the hierarchy. For a discussion of the earliest Woodland groups,

see the separate article Eastern Woodlands culture.

TRIBES: Acolapissa, Asis, Alibamu, Apalachee, Atakapa, Bayougoula,

Biloxi, Calusa, Catawba, Chakchiuma, Cherokee, Chesapeake Algonquin,

Chickasaw, Chitamacha, Choctaw, Coushatta, Creek, Cusabo, Gaucata,

Guale, Hitchiti, Houma, Jeags, Karankawa, Lumbee, Miccosukee, Mobile,

Napochi, Nappissa, Natchez, Ofo, Powhatan, Quapaw, Seminole,

Southeastern Siouan, Tekesta, Tidewater Algonquin, Timucua, Tunica,

Tuscarora, Yamasee, Yuchi. Bannock, Paiute (Northern), Paiute

(Southern), Sheepeater, Shoshone (Northern), Shoshone (Western), Ute,

Washo.

The Northern Area

The Northern area covered most of Canada, also known as the Subarctic,

in the belt of semiarctic land from the Rocky Mts. to Hudson Bay. The main

languages in this area were those of the Algonquian-Wakashan and the Nadene

stocks. Typical of the people there were the Chipewyan. Limiting

environmental conditions prevented farming, but hunting, gathering, and

activities such as trapping and fishing were carried on. Nomadic hunters

moved with the season from forest to tundra, killing the caribou in

semiannual drives. Other food was provided by small game, berries, and

edible roots. Not only food but clothing and even some shelter (caribou-

skin tents) came from the caribou, and with caribou leather thongs the

Indians laced their snowshoes and made nets and bags. The snowshoe was one

of the most important items of material culture. The shaman featured in the

religion of many of these people.

TRIBES: Calapuya, Cathlamet, Chehalis, Chemakum, Chetco,

Chilluckkittequaw, Chinook, Clackamas, Clatskani, Clatsop, Cowich,

Cowlitz, Haida, Hoh, Klallam, Kwalhioqua, Lushootseed, Makah, Molala,

Multomah, Oynut, Ozette, Queets, Quileute, Quinault, Rogue River,

Siletz, Taidhapam, Tillamook, Tutuni, Yakonan.

The Southwest Area

The Southwest area generally extended over Arizona, New Mexico, and

parts of Colorado and Utah. The Uto-Aztecan branch of the Aztec-Tanoan

linguistic stock was the main language group of the area. Here a

seminomadic people called the Basket Makers, who hunted with a spear

thrower, or atlatl, acquired (c.1000 B.C.) the art of cultivating beans and

squash, probably from their southern neighbors. They also learned to make

unfired pottery. They wove baskets, sandals, and bags. By c.700 B.C. they

had initiated intensive agriculture, made true pottery, and hunted with bow

and arrow. They lived in pit dwellings, which were partly underground and

were lined with slabs of stone - the so-called slab houses. A new people

came into the area some two centuries later; these were the ancestors of

the Pueblo Indians. They lived in large, terraced community houses set on

ledges of cliffs or canyons for protection and developed a ceremonial

chamber (the kiva) out of what had been the living room of the pit

dwellings. This period of development ended c.1300, after a severe drought

and the beginnings of the invasions from the north by the Athabascan-

speaking Navajo and Apache. The known historic Pueblo cultures of such

sedentary farming peoples as the Hopi and the Zuni then came into being.

They cultivated corn, beans, squash, cotton, and tobacco, killed rabbits

with a wooden throwing stick, and traded cotton textiles and corn for

buffalo meat from nomadic tribes. The men wove cotton textiles and

cultivated the fields, while women made fine polychrome pottery. The

mythology and religious ceremonies were complex.

TRIBES: Apache (Eastern), Apache (Western), Chemehuevi, Coahuiltec,

Hopi, Jano, Manso, Maricopa, Mohave, Navaho, Pai, Papago, Pima, Pueblo

(breaking into: Acoma, Cochiti, Isleta, Jemez, Laguna, Nambe, Picuris,

Pojoaque, Sandia, San Felipe, San Ildefonso, San Juan, Santa Ana,

Santa Clara, Santo Domingo, Taos, Tesuque, Zia), Yaqui, Yavapai,

Yuman, Zuni. Am strongly thinking about

LIFESTYLE and TRADITIONS

Social Organization

Among most of the tribes east of the Mississippi, among the Pueblos,

Navahos, and others of the South-West, and among the Tlingit and Haida of

the north-west coast, society was based upon the clan system, under which

the tribe was divided into a number of large family groups, the members of

which were considered as closely related and prohibited from intermarrying.

The children usually followed the clan of the mother. The clans themselves

were sometimes grouped into larger bodies of related kindred, to which the

name of phratries has been applied. The clans were usually, but not always,

named from animals, and each clan paid special reverence to its tutelary

animal. Thus the Cherokee had seven clans, Wolf, Deer, Bird, Paint, and

three others with names not readily translated. A Wolf man could not marry

a Wolf woman, but might marry a Deer woman, or one of any of the other

clans, and his children were of the Deer clan or other clan accordingly. In

some tribes the name of the individual indicated the clan, as "Round Foot"

in the wolf clan and "Crawler" in the Turtle clan. Certain functions of

war, peace, or ceremonial were usually hereditary in special clans, and

revenge for injuries with the tribe devolved upon the clan relatives of the

person injured. The tribal council was made up of the hereditary or elected

chiefs, and any alien taken into the tribe had to be specifically adopted

into a family and clan. The clan system was by no means universal but is

now known to have been limited to particular regions and seems to have been

originally an artificial contrivance to protect land and other tribal

descent. It was absent almost everywhere west of the Missouri, excepting in

the South-West, and appears to have been unknown throughout the geater

portion of British America, the interior of Alaska, and probably among the

Eskimos. Among the plains tribes, the unit was the band, whose members

camped together under their own chief, in an appointed place in the tribal

camp circle, and were subject to no marriage prohibition, but usually

married among themselves.

With a few notable exceptions, there was very little idea of tribal

solidarity or supreme authority, and where a chief appears in history as

tribal dictator, as in the case of Powhatan in Virginia, it was usually due

to his own strong personality. The real authority was with the council as

interpreters of ancient tribal customs. Even such well-known tribes as the

Creeks and Cherokee were really only aggregations of closely cognate

villages, each acting independently or in cooperation with the others as

suited its immediate convenience. Even in the smaller and more compact

tribes there was seldom any provision for coercing the individual to secure

common action, but those of the same clan or band usually acted together.

In this lack of solidarity is the secret of Indian military weakness. In no

Indian war in the history of the United States has a single large tribe

ever united in solid resistance, while on the other hand other tribes have

always been found to join against the hostiles. Among the Natchez, Tinucua,

and some other southern tribes, there is more indication of a central

authority, resting probably with a dominant clan.

The Iroquois of New York had progressed beyond any other native people

north of Mexico in the elaboration of a state and empire. Through a

carefully planned system of confederations, originating about 1570, the

five allied tribes had secured internal peace and unity, by which they had

been able to acquire dominant control over most of the tribes from Hudson

Bay to Carolina, and if not prematurely checked by the advent of the

whites, might in time have founded a northern empire to rival that of the

Aztec.

Land was usually held in common, except among the Pueblos, where it

was apportioned among the clans, and in some tribes in northern California,

where individual right is said to have existed. Timber and other natural

products were free, and hospitality was carried to such a degree that no

man kept what his neighbour wanted. While this prevented extremes of

poverty, on the other hand it paralyzed individual industry and economy,

and was an effectual barrier to progress. The accumulation of property was

further discouraged by the fact that in most tribes it was customary to

destroy all the belongings of the owner at his death. The word for "brave"

and "generous" was frequently the same, and along the north-west coast

there existed the curious custom known as potlatch, under which a man saved

for half a lifetime in order to acquire the rank of chief by finally giving

away his entire hoard at a grand public feast.

Enslavement of captives was more or less common throughout the

country, especially in the southern states, where the captives were

sometimes crippled to prevent their escape. Along the north-west coast and

as far south as California, not only the captives but their children and

later descendants were slaves and might be abused or slaughtered at the

will of the master, being frequently burned alive with their deceased

owner, or butchered to provide a ceremonial cannibal feast. In the Southern

slave states, before the Civil War, the Indians were frequent owners of

negro slaves.

Men and women, and sometimes even the older children, were organized

into societies for military, religious, working, and social purposes, many

of these being secret, especially those concerned with medicine and women's

work. In some tribes there was also a custom by which two young men became

"brothers" through a public exchange of names.

The erroneous opinion that the Indian man was an idler, and that the

Indian woman was a drudge and slave, is founded upon a misconception of the

native system of division of labour, under which it was the man's business

to defend the home and to provide food by hunting and fishing, assuming all

the risks and hardships of battle and the wilderness, while the woman

attended to the domestic duties including the bringing of wood and water,

and, with the nomad tribes, the setting up of the tipis. The children,

however, required little care after they were able to run about, and the

housekeeping was of the simplest, and, as the women usually worked in

groups, with songs and gossip, while the children played about, the work

had much of pleasure mixed with it. In all that chiefly concerned the home,

the woman was the mistress, and in many tribes the women's council gave the

final decision upon important matters of public policy. Among the more

agricultural tribes, as the Pueblos, men and women worked the fields

together. In the far north, on the other hand, the harsh environment seems

to have brought all the savagery of the man's nature, and the woman was in

fact a slave, subject to every whim of cruelty, excepting among the Kutchin

of the Upper Yukon, noted for their kind treatment of their women. Polygamy

existed in nearly all tribes excepting the Pueblos.

Houses

In and north of the United States there were some twenty well-defined

types of native dwellings, varying from the mere brush shelter to the five-

storied pueblo.

In the Northwest, Native American cultures lived in a shelter known as

the plank house. The plank house varied in shape and design according to

the tribe who was building it. It varied from a simple shed-like building

to a partly underground shelter like the Mogollon shelter. The plank house

was made primarily from wood pieces found along the wooded areas near the

sea or water body. Each house was built by placing the wood on poles

imbedded in the ground. Eventually the roof was placed on top in a upside-

down V shape. These houses were considered very durable to the environment,

especially dampness and rain. The villages of the Northwest revolved around

the environment which enveloped them. Large structures of enormous logs

notched and fitted together became the primary housing for most of the

peoples of this region. Each of these houses had a central living area and

distinct, private sections for sleeping areas for the many families which

lived there. Other wo oden structures were used for ceremonial purposes as

well as for birthing mothers and burial sites.

In the eastern United States and adjacent parts of Canada the prevailing

type was that commonly known under the Algonkian name of wigwam. The wigwam

was a round shelter used by many different Native American cultures in the

east and the southeast. It is considered one of the best shelters made. It

was as safe and warm as the best houses of early colonists. The wigwam has

a curved surface which can hold up against the worst weather in any region.

The Native Americans of the Plains lived in one of the most well known

shelters, the tepee ( also Tipi or Teepee). The tipi (the Sioux name for

house) or conical tent-dwelling of the upper lake and plains region was of

poles set lightly in the ground, bound together near the top, and covered

with bark or mats in the lake country, and with dressed buffalo skins on

the plains. These skins were often painted in bright colors to show the

personalities of the people dwelling there. It was easily portable, and two

women could set it up or take in down within an hour. On ceremonial

occasions the tipi camp was arranged in a great circle, with the ceremonial

"medicine lodge" in the centre.

The Native Americans of the Southwest such as the Anasazi and the Pueblo,

lived in pueblos constructed by stacking large adobe blocks, sun-dried and

made from clay and water, usually measuring 8 by 16 inches (20 by 40

centimetres) and 4 to 6 in. (10 to 15 cm) thick. These blocks form the

walls of the building, up to five stories tall, and were built around a

central courtyard. Usually each floor is set back from the floor below, so

that the whole building resembles a zigzag pyramid. The method also

provides terraces on those levels made from the roof tops of the level

below. These unique and amazing apartment-like structures were often built

along cliff faces; the most famous, the "cliff palace" of Mesa Verde,

Colorado, had over 200 rooms. Another site, the Pueblo Bonito ruins along

New Mexico's Chaco River, once contained more than 800 rooms. Each pueblo

had at least two, and often more kivas, or ceremonial rooms.

The semi-sedentary Pawnee Mandan, and other tribes along the Missouri

built solid circular structures of logs, covered with earth, capable

sometimes of housing a dozen families.

The Wichita and other tribes of the Texas border built large circular

houses of grass thatch laid over a framework of poles.

The living shelters of the Northeast Native Americans are called Long

Houses. The long house was favored more in the winter months than in the

summer ones. The long house was a one story apartment house, with many

people of the tribe sharing the warmth and space. In an average long house,

there would be three or four fireplaces, usually lined with small

fieldstones. With this many fireplaces, smoke would fill up the house, so

the house would be built with smoke holes in the roof. The typical long

house was estimated to be about 50 feet long.

The Navaho hogan, was a smaller counterpart of the Pawnee "earth lodge".

The communal pueblo structure of the Rio Grande region consisted of a

number—sometimes hundreds - of square-built rooms of various sizes, of

stone or adobe laid in clay mortar, with flat roof, court-yards, and

intricate passage ways, suggestive of oriental things.

The Piute wikiup of Nevada was only one degree above the brush shelter of

the Apache. California, with its long stretch from north to south, and its

extremes from warm plain to snowclad sierra, had a variety of types,

including the semi-subterranean.

Along the whole north-west coast, from the Columbia to the Eskimo border,

the prevailing type was the rectangular board structure, painted with

symbolic designs, and with the great totem pole carved with the heraldic

crests of the owner, towering above the doorway.

Not even pueblo architecture had evolved a chimney.

Food and its Procurement

In the timbered regions of the eastern and southern states and the

adjacent portions of Canada, along the Missouri and among the Pueblos,

Pima, and other tribes of the south-west, the chief dependence was upon

agriculture, the principal crops being corn, beans, and squashes, besides a

native tobacco. The New England tribes understood the principal of

manuring, while those of the arid south-west built canals and practiced

irrigation. Along the whole ocean-coast, in the lake region and on the

Columbia, fishing was an important source of subsistence. On the south

Atlantic seaboard elaborate weirs were in use, but elsewhere the hook and

line, the seine or the harpoon, were more common. Clams and oysters were

consumed in such quantities along the Atlantic coast that in some

favourable gathering-places empty shells were piled into mounds ten feet

high. From central California northward along the whole west coast, the

salmon was the principle, and on the Columbia, almost the entire, food

dependence. The northwest-coast tribes, as well as the Eskimo, were

fearless whalers. Everywhere the wild game, of course, was an important

factor in the food supply, particularly the deer in the timber region and

the buffalo on the plains. The nomad tribes of the plains, in fact, lived

by the buffalo, which, in one way or another, furnished them with food,

clothing, shelter, household equipment, and fuel.

In this connection there were many curious tribal and personal taboos

founded upon clan traditions, dreams, or other religious reasons. Thus the

Navajo and the Apache, so far from eating the meat of a bear, refuse even

to touch the skin of one, believing the bear to be of human kinship. For a

somewhat similar reason some tribes of the plains and the arid South-West

avoid a fish, while considering the dog a delicacy.

Besides the cultivated staples, nuts, roots, and wild fruits were in use

wherever procurable. The Indians of the Sierras lived largely upon acorns

and piсons. Those of Oregon and the Columbia region gathered large stores

of camass and other roots, in addition to other species of berries. The

Apache and other south-western tribes gathered the cactus fruit and toasted

the root of the maguey. The tribes of the upper lake region made great use

of wild rice, while those of the Ohio Valley made sugar from the sap of the

maple, and those of the southern states extracted a nourishing oil from the

hickory nut. Pemmican and hominy are Indian names as well as Indian

inventions, and maple sugar is also an aboriginal discovery. Salt was used

by many tribes, especially on the plains and in the South-West, but in the

Gulf states lye was used instead. Cannibalism simply for the sake of food

could hardly be said to exist, but, as a war ceremony or sacrifice

following a savage triumph, the custom was very general, particularly on

the Texas coast and among the Iroquoian and Algonquian tribes of the east.

The Tonkawa of Texas were know to all their neighbours as the "Man-Eaters".

Apparently the only native intoxicant was tiswin, a sort of mild beer

fermented from corn by the Apache and neighbouring tribes.

Domesticated Animals

The dog was practically the only domesticated animal before the advent of

the whites and was found in nearly all tribes, being used as a beast of

burden by day and as a constant sentinel by night, while with some tribes

the flesh was also a favourite dish. He was seldom, if ever, trained to

hunting. There were no wild horses, cows, pigs, or chickens. Therefore, the

Indians knew nothing about these animals. In Massachusetts, they began to

domesticate the turkey. Eagles and other birds were occasionally kept for

their feathers, and the children sometimes had other pets than puppies. The

horse, believed to have been introduced by the Spaniards, speedily became

as important a factor in the life of the plains tribes as the buffalo

itself. In the same way the sheep and goats, introduced by the early

Franciscans, have become the chief source of wealth to the Navajo,

numbering now half a million animals from which they derive an annual

income of over a million dollars.

Industries and Arts

In the fabrication of domestic instruments, weapons, ornaments,

ceremonial objects, boats, seines, and traps, in house-building and in the

making of pottery and baskets, the Indian showed considerable ingenuity in

design and infinite patience of execution. In the division of labour, the

making of weapons, hunting and fishing requirements, boats, pipes, and most

ceremonial objects fell to the men, while the domestic arts of pottery and

basket-making, weaving and dressing of skins, the fashioning of clothing

and the preparation and preservation of food commonly devolved upon the

women.

Among the sedentary or semi-sedentary tribes house-building belonged

usually to the men, although the women sometimes assisted. On the plains

the entire making and keeping of the tipi were appointed to the women. In

many tribes the man cut, sewed, and decorated his own buckskin suit, and in

some of the Pueblo villages the men were the basket-weavers.

While the house, in certain tribes, evinced considerable architecture

skill, its prime purpo se was always utilitarian, and there was usually but

little attempt at decorative effect, excepting the Haida, Tlingit, and

others of the north-west coast, where the great carved and painted totem

poles, sometimes sixty feet in height, set up in front of every dwelling,

were a striking feature of the village picture. The same tribes were

notable for their great sea-going canoes, hollowed out from a single cedar

trunk, elaborately carved and painted, and sometimes large enough to

accommodate forty men. The skin boat or kaiak of the Eskimo was a marvel of

lightness and buoyancy, being practically unsinkable. The birch-bark canoe

of the eastern tribes was especially well-adapted to its purposes of inland

navigation. In the southern states we find the smaller "dug-out" log canoe.

On the plains the boat was virtually unknown, except for the tub-shaped

skin boat of the Mandan and associated tribes of the upper Missouri.

The Eskimo were noted for their artistic carvings of bones and walrus

ivory; the Pueblo for their turquoise-inlaid work and their wood carving,

especially mythologic figurines, and the Atlantic and California coast

tribes for their work in shell. The wampum, or shell beads, made chiefly

from the shells of various clams found along the Atlantic coast have become

historic, having been extensively used not only for dress ornamentation,

but also on treaty belts, as tribal tribute, and as a standard of value

answering the purpose of money. The ordinary stone hammer or club, found in

nearly every tribe, represented much patient labour, while the whole skill

of the artist was frequently expended upon the stone-carved pipe. The black

stone pipes of the Cherokee were famous in the southern states, and the red

stone pipe of catlinite from a single quarry in Minnesota was reputed

sacred and was smoked at the ratification of all solemn tribal engagements

throughout the plains and the lake-region. Knives, lance-blades, and arrow-

heads were also usually of stone, preferably flint or obsidian. Along the

Gulf Coast, keen-edged knives fashioned from split canes were in use. Corn

mortars and bowls were usually of wood in the timber region and of stone in

the arid country. Hide-scrapers were of bone, and spoons of wood or horn.

Metal-work was limited chiefly to the fashioning of gorgets and other

ornaments hammered out from native copper, found in the southern

Alleghenies, about Lake Superior, and about Copper River in Alaska. The art

of smelting was apparently unknown. Under Franciscan and later Mexican

teaching the Navahos have developed a silver-working art which compares in

importance with their celebrated basket-weaving, the material used being

silver coins melted down in stone molds of their own carving. Mica was

mined in the Carolina mountains by the local tribes and fashioned into

gorgets and mirrors, which found their way by trade as far as the western

prairies, All of these arts belonged to the men.

Basket-weaving in wood splits, cane, rushes, yucca- or bark-fibre, and

various grasses was practiced by the same tribes which made pottery, and

excepting in a few tribes, was likewise a women's work. The basket was

stained in various designs with vegetable dyes. The Cherokee made a double-

walled basket. Those of the Choctaw, Pueblo tribes, Jicarillo, and Piute

were noted for beauty of design and execution, but the Pomo and other

tribes of California excelled in all closeness and delicacy of weaving and

richness of decoration, many of their grass baskets being water-tight and

almost hidden under an inter-weaving of bright-coloured plumage, and

further decorated around the top with pendants of shining mother-of-pearl.

The weaving of grass or rush mats for covering beds or wigwams may be

considered as a variant of the basket-weaving process, as likewise the

delicate porcupine quill appliquй work of the northern plains and upper-

Mississippi tribes.

Silver jewelry is probably the best known form of Native American art.

It is not an ancient art. Southwest Native Americans began working in

silver around 1850. Jewelry was the way many Native Americans showed their

wealth. Coins were used for silver in the early days. Navajo silverwork can

be made many ways. One way is to carve a stone with a knife and pour the

silver into the shape. This is called sandcasting. Another way is to cut

the shape out of silver and use a stamp to make a design. Stamps were made

from any bit of scrap iron, including spikes, old chisels and broken files.

Turquoise is used in jewelry. This didn't start happening until 1880's.

Turquoise is found in Colorado, Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico.The color of

turquoise is from a pale chalky blue -almost white- to a very deep green.

The making of pottery belonged to the women and was practiced in nearly

all tribes, excepting those in the plains and interior basin, and the cold

north. The Eastern pottery is usually decorated with stamped patterns. That

of the Pueblo and other south-western tribes was smooth and painted over

with symbolic designs. A few specimens of glazed ware have been found in

the same region, but it is doubtful if the process is of native origin. The

Catawba and some other tribes produced a beautiful black ware by burning

the vessel under cover, so that the smoke permeated the pores of the clay.

The simple hand process by coiling was universally used.

The useful art of skin-dressing also belonged exclusively to the women,

excepting along the Arctic coasts, where furs, instead of denuded skins,

were worn by the Eskimo, while the entrails of the larger sea animals were

also utilized for waterproof garments. The skins in most general use were

those of the buffalo, elk, and deer, which were prepared by scraping,

stretching, and anointing with various softening or preservative mixtures,

of which the liver or brains of the animal were commonly a part. The timber

tribes generally smoked the skins, a process unknown on the plains. A

limited use was made of bird skins with the feathers intact.

The weaving art proper was also almost exclusively in the hands of the

women. In the east, aside from basket- and mat-making it was confined

almost entirely to the twisting of ropes or bowstrings, and the making of

belts, the skin fabric taking the place of the textile. In the South-West

the Pueblo tribes wove native cotton upon looms of their own device, and,

since the introduction of sheep by the Franciscan missionaries in the

sixteenth century, the Navaho, enlarging upon their Pueblo teaching have

developed a weaving art which has made the Navaho blanket famous throughout

the country, the stripping, spinning, weaving, and dyeing of the wool all

being their own. The Piute of Nevada and others of that region wore

blankets woven from strips of rabbit-fur. Some early writers mention

feather-woven cloaks among the gulf tribes, but it is possible that the

feathers were simply overlaid upon the skin garment.

It is notable that the Indian worker, man or woman, used no pattern,

carrying the design in the head. Certain designs, however, were

standardized and hereditary in particular tribes and societies.

According to Navajo beliefs, the Universe is a balanced place. Illness

and other disasters happen if the balance is upset. It is believed only

Humans can upset this balance, not animals or plants! To make the person

healthly again a ceremony is performed. The sandpaintings, called ikaah,

used in these ceremonies are made between sunrise and sunset of the same

day.

Games and Amusements

Naturally careless of the future, the Indian gave himself up to pleasure

when not under immediate necessity or danger, and his leisure time at home

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